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Introduction: More Than Just Puppets

For decades, the Muppets have charmed audiences worldwide with their unique blend of chaos, comedy, and surprising heart. From the earnest Kermit the Frog to the diva Miss Piggy, these felt-and-foam creations occupy a cherished space in popular culture. But long before The Muppet Show or Sesame Street beamed into living rooms, Jim Henson’s creations were cutting their teeth in a far less glamorous, yet crucially important arena: television advertising. The story of Muppets in commercials isn’t just a footnote; it’s the bedrock upon which their empire was built. It’s a journey that starts with shockingly violent coffee pitches in the 1950s and evolves into sophisticated global campaigns for cars, technology, and travel, showcasing not only the Muppets’ enduring appeal but also Henson’s innovative genius and savvy business sense. This exploration delves into the fascinating history of Muppet commercial appearances, tracing their evolution from abstract pitch-puppets to beloved brand ambassadors and analyzing why, even today, brands keep answering the call of the Muppets.  

The Caffeine-Fueled Chaos: Wilkins Coffee & the Birth of Muppet Advertising (1957-1969)

The Muppets’ foray into advertising began unexpectedly in 1957. Jack Wilkins, owner of the Washington D.C.-based Wilkins Coffee company, was captivated by Jim Henson’s early puppet work on the local show Sam and Friends. Facing stiff competition from national brands like Maxwell House and operating on a limited budget, Wilkins sought a standout advertising strategy. He tasked his company president, Roger Hefler, and advertising manager Helen Ver Standig to approach Henson about creating commercials. The local TV stations offered inexpensive 10-second slots for station identification, a constraint that would profoundly shape Henson’s approach.  

To maximize impact within this extremely brief timeframe—essentially eight seconds for the skit and two for the product shot—Henson created two distinct Muppet characters: the cheerful, coffee-loving Wilkins, and the grumpy, coffee-hating Wontkins. Wilkins, a tall, thin character made of soft brown wool flannel with button eyes and an upturned mouth, bore a noticeable, though distinct, resemblance to the early Kermit the Frog. Wontkins was shorter, squatter, triangular, and perpetually frowning.  

The resulting 179 commercials, produced between 1957 and 1961, were anything but gentle. The typical format involved Wilkins enthusiastically promoting Wilkins Coffee, Wontkins refusing, and Wilkins responding with swift, cartoonish violence. Wontkins was regularly shot (even out of a cannon), stabbed, clubbed, electrocuted, blown up, run over, thrown from heights, and subjected to numerous other creative torments, all in the name of selling coffee. Henson’s early slogan was stark: “Drink Wilkins coffee…or else!”.  

This reliance on high-impact, easily digestible gags, particularly violent slapstick, wasn’t just a stylistic choice; it was arguably a direct consequence of the 10-second format’s limitations. Complex narratives were impossible, forcing Henson to rely on visual humor and rapid, shocking payoffs to grab viewer attention instantly. Henson later articulated his philosophy: “Till then, advertising agencies believed that the hard sell was the only way to get their message over on television. We took a very different approach. We tried to sell things by making people laugh”. In the context of the 10-second ad, dark, surprising humor proved an effective, albeit unconventional, method.  

Remarkably, this dark comedy resonated. The Wilkins and Wontkins spots became a sensation in the D.C. area, declared by Henson himself as “the number one, the most popular commercial”. They demonstrably boosted Wilkins Coffee sales. The characters’ popularity even spawned merchandise; in 1958, 25,000 vinyl hand puppets of the duo were sold for a dollar each, though some fans expressed disappointment that the stiff vinyl didn’t match the softer look of the TV puppets.  

The widespread success and syndication of these ads suggest a different cultural tolerance or interpretation of such cartoonish violence in the late 1950s and early 1960s. What might appear jarring today was likely perceived by contemporary audiences as absurd, harmless fun, fitting within the slapstick traditions of the era. The lack of significant documented backlash, coupled with their clear popularity and adoption by numerous brands, points to this different context.  

Recognizing the campaign’s potential, Jack Wilkins helped Henson syndicate the concept. Henson shrewdly retained ownership rights to his characters and resold the same commercial scripts and concepts to numerous other regional brands, simply swapping in the new product visuals. Wilkins and Wontkins (or variations thereof) pitched Community Coffee, Nash’s Coffee, Red Diamond Coffee, La Touraine Coffee, Jomar Instant Coffee, Taystee Bread, Dugan’s Bread, Merita Bread, Kraml Dairy, Faygo soda, Frank’s Beverages, Calso Water, Esskay Meats, and even Standard Oil of Ohio (SOHIO). The famous “Cannon” spot alone was reportedly used by at least 14 different clients. This syndication model provided significant income for Henson and gave his Muppets national exposure long before his television shows achieved fame. This early business strategy—retaining character rights and licensing concepts—proved foundational, providing the financial resources and creative freedom that fueled the Muppets’ later expansion. The Wilkins and Wontkins characters continued appearing in ads, primarily for Community Coffee (eventually in color), until 1969. Though Wilkins Coffee itself eventually went defunct in the 1990s , the ads have enjoyed a viral resurgence online in recent years, a testament to their quirky, enduring impact.  

Meet the Muppets (Sort Of): Character Development Through Commercials (1960s-Early 1970s)

The success of the Wilkins campaign opened doors, and throughout the 1960s, Jim Henson continued to leverage commercial work not just for income, but as a vital creative laboratory. These advertising gigs became a low-stakes environment to experiment with new puppet designs, refine character archetypes, and test comedic formulas that would directly influence his later, more celebrated projects on television and film.  

Several iconic Muppet characters trace their lineage back to these commercial origins:

• Rowlf the Dog: Perhaps the most significant character to emerge from this era, Rowlf was created in 1962 for a series of Purina Dog Chow commercials. Designed by Henson and collaborator Don Sahlin, Rowlf featured a more expressive “live-hand” puppet design, allowing the performer’s hand inside the puppet’s glove-like paw for more realistic manipulation. Rowlf’s easygoing, piano-playing persona, brought to life by Henson’s natural performance, quickly made him a star. He became the first Muppet to achieve network television fame as a regular sidekick on The Jimmy Dean Show from 1963 to 1966. His popularity extended to corporate work, including meeting films and advertisements for IBM.
• Proto-Cookie Monster: Before Cookie Monster famously munched his way through cookies on Sesame Street, his voracious appetite was honed selling snacks for other companies. Characters like the “Crown-Grabber” appeared in unaired ads for General Foods’ Wheels, Flutes, and Crowns cereals , while the “Wheel Stealer” devoured Frito-Lay’s Munchos potato chips in commercials from the late 1960s. This archetype of a monster singularly focused on consuming the advertised product was a clear precursor, later refined and given his iconic blue fur and googly eyes for educational television.
• Proto-Kermit: While Henson insisted Wilkins was not Kermit , the visual and vocal similarities are undeniable. Wilkins represents a key stage in the evolution of Henson’s signature frog character. Kermit himself, who actually predated Wilkins, having debuted on Sam and Friends in 1955 , also appeared in commercials during this period for brands like LaChoy Chinese Food (alongside a fire-breathing dragon) , Clausen’s Bakery, McGary Sausage, and even the Federal Housing Administration.
• Other Early Characters: The commercial portfolio expanded rapidly, featuring a host of unique Muppets for various clients. These included the Beautiful Day Monster (General Foods) , characters for Kraml Dairy , Onky for On-Cor Frozen Foods , puppets for Wilson’s Meats , Aurora Tissue , and many others.

This period demonstrates a clear pipeline from commercial experimentation to mainstream character development. Henson strategically used these paid gigs to develop and refine the very characters and techniques that would later define his most beloved works.  

The Sesame Street Divide: A pivotal moment arrived in 1969 with the debut of Sesame Street. Henson and his team were integral in creating the show’s Muppet cast (Big Bird, Bert, Ernie, Oscar the Grouch, Cookie Monster, Grover etc.). However, Henson made a conscious and significant decision: these Sesame Street-specific characters would not be used in commercial advertising.  

This decision stemmed partly from criticism received after Kermit the Frog (who existed before Sesame Street) appeared in a network special, Hey Cinderella!, and pitched products during commercial breaks. Critics argued it was inappropriate for a character associated with children’s education on PBS to simultaneously act as a “conniving pitchman” on commercial television. Henson took this criticism seriously; Kermit was even temporarily replaced on Sesame Street by a character named Herbert Birdsfoot in 1970.  

The core rationale was to protect the educational integrity of Sesame Street and avoid exploiting the trust of its young audience by having their familiar friends endorse products. This principle was further solidified by the licensing structure, where the Children’s Television Workshop (now Sesame Workshop) held rights related to the show’s usage. Henson viewed the world of Sesame Street and the world of his other Muppet projects (like the upcoming Muppet Show) as distinct entities with different purposes and audiences. This deliberate separation, maintained throughout Henson’s life, established a crucial brand distinction and highlighted his ethical considerations regarding children’s media, compartmentalizing his creations based on their intended mission. He effectively stopped making commercials altogether after Sesame Street‘s debut in November 1969, with the final spots for Community Coffee airing early that year.  

It’s Time to Pitch the Product: The Muppet Show Stars Take the Ad Stage (1976-Present)

The launch of The Muppet Show in 1976 marked a new era. The show, aimed at a broader family and adult audience on commercial television , turned characters like Kermit, Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Gonzo, and Animal into international superstars. Unlike their Sesame Street counterparts, Henson felt comfortable featuring these now-famous characters in commercial endorsements, provided the product and campaign felt like a “good fit”. This strategic shift moved away from creating new puppet spokescharacters towards leveraging the pre-existing fame, established personalities, and deep audience connection built by the hit television series. Brands could now tap into the existing celebrity equity of the Muppets.  

This led to numerous high-profile advertising campaigns over the following decades:

Polaroid (1981 onwards):

• Strategy & Context: Polaroid aimed to re-engage baby boomers with instant photography while introducing it to a new generation. Jim Henson had a personal affinity for Polaroid technology, having experimented with it since the mid-1950s. The campaign sought to leverage the Muppets’ popularity to associate the brand with fun and accessibility.
• Execution: The Muppets filmed their first Polaroid spots in May 1981. Commercials featured Kermit livening up parties with a OneStep camera, Fozzie receiving one for Christmas, and Miss Piggy hamming it up (or being told not to). The tagline explicitly stated, “Polaroid means fun”. The campaign included TV commercials and print ads featuring stars like Miss Piggy. The strategy involved appealing to various latent desires within the target demographic through diverse ad scenarios.
• Analysis: This collaboration perfectly aligned the Muppets’ inherent chaos and fun-loving spirit with Polaroid’s message of capturing spontaneous moments. It capitalized on the characters’ peak celebrity following The Muppet Show.

Ford Escape Hybrid (2006):

• Strategy & Context: Launched during Super Bowl XL, this campaign aimed to highlight the environmental benefits of the Ford Escape Hybrid, positioning it as an accessible “green” option for consumers. The goal was to tap into growing environmental consciousness.
• Execution: The ad famously featured Kermit the Frog, initially singing a variation of his signature “It’s Not Easy Being Green,” only to encounter the Escape Hybrid in a forest setting and conclude, “I guess it is easy being green!”. Kermit served as the official “spokesfrog” for the broader campaign, which included print ads.
• Reception & Effectiveness: The Super Bowl spot won an award from IAG Research as the “Most Effective Automotive Ad—Non Luxury” for 2006, indicating strong viewer recall and engagement. However, the campaign also faced criticism for “greenwashing”—suggesting an SUV, even a hybrid, could be considered truly environmentally friendly. Some analysts felt the campaign, despite its charm, didn’t fully maximize the marketing potential of a genuinely innovative product at the time.

Pizza Hut (c. 2004-2006):

• Strategy & Context: Pizza Hut’s strategy focused on positioning the brand as facilitating a shared, enjoyable experience. Campaigns promoted specific products designed for groups, like the “4 for All” pizza (offering four different topping sections) and “Dipping Strips” pizza. The target market included families and young adults.
• Execution: Commercials featured the core Muppet Show ensemble (Kermit, Piggy, Fozzie, Gonzo, Animal, etc.) acting out relatable scenarios of group dining disagreements – specifically, arguments over pizza toppings. Pizza Hut’s products were presented as the solution, allowing everyone to get what they want. The ads utilized the Muppets’ established comedic dynamics and personalities. One internal marketing document mentioned these ads alongside a contemporary campaign featuring Jessica Simpson.
• Analysis: This campaign effectively used the Muppets’ ensemble comedy to highlight specific product features that addressed common consumer pain points (variety, customization for groups). It reinforced Pizza Hut’s brand positioning around sharing, fun, and convenience.

Lipton Tea (“Be More Tea” Campaign, 2014):

• Strategy & Context: This marked Lipton’s first truly global brand positioning campaign, backed by a significant investment (reportedly over $40 million). The core message encouraged consumers to break from their daily routines, be more present, playful, and thoughtful – to “Be More Tea”. The campaign launch was strategically timed to coincide with the release of the Disney movie Muppets Most Wanted.
• Execution: The campaign debuted with a high-profile TV spot during the Academy Awards. The ad depicted Kermit navigating a chaotic New York City populated entirely by hyperactive Animals, finding calm and perspective after sipping Lipton tea. The Muppets’ inherent playfulness and irreverence were used to embody the “Be More Tea” spirit. Framestore provided VFX to multiply the seven on-set Animals into hundreds for crowd scenes.
• Cultural Impact: Beyond its initial run, the campaign achieved unexpected cultural longevity by spawning the immensely popular “Kermit sipping tea” meme, often used with the caption “…But that’s none of my business” to comment ironically on situations. The meme’s enduring presence online, acknowledged even in later Muppet content , highlights the campaign’s significant, if unintentional, cultural footprint.

Warburtons (UK, 2015):

• Strategy & Context: This UK bakery brand featured the Muppets in their 2015 Christmas advertising campaign for “Giant Crumpets”. It was part of an ongoing, humorous campaign series where celebrities pitch outlandish ideas to the company chairman, Jonathan Warburton.
• Execution: Titled “The Giant Crumpet Show,” the ad depicted the Muppets taking over the Warburtons bakery in their typically chaotic fashion to pitch their crumpet show idea. The campaign leveraged the Muppets’ star power and signature humor.
• Effectiveness: Research by Millward Brown crowned the Warburtons ad the “most successful Christmas TV ad of 2015” in the UK. It scored highest among competitors on key metrics including persuasion (ability to convince consumers to buy, score 3.49/5), branding (association with Warburtons, score 4.5/5), and involvement (making viewers feel part of it, score 7.16/10). Warburtons reported struggling to meet the high demand for Giant Crumpets following the ad’s launch, and the campaign generated significant social media buzz (estimated 6 tweets per second on launch night). Analysts praised the ad for successfully cutting through the typical sentimental Christmas advertising clutter with humor and strong branding.

Booking.com (2024/2025 Super Bowl):

• Strategy & Context: Featured in a Super Bowl commercial, this ad was part of Booking.com’s ongoing “Booking.yeah” campaign, celebrating the joy and satisfaction of travel. The strategy explicitly aimed to leverage nostalgia and the built-in audience affinity for the Muppets to create an instantly engaging and memorable spot, while also highlighting the platform’s personalization features.
• Execution: The commercial presented a montage of beloved Muppet characters (Kermit, Miss Piggy, Animal, Statler & Waldorf, Gonzo) enjoying diverse vacation scenarios – beach relaxation, hotel antics, Las Vegas adventures – presumably booked via the platform.
• Reception & Analysis: The ad was generally well-received and seen by commentators as a positive use of the Muppets, showcasing their continued cultural relevance and broad appeal. It served as a reminder of the characters’ enduring charm, particularly at a time when some fans felt Disney was underutilizing the franchise in original content.

Other Notable Collaborations: The Muppets’ commercial appeal extends far beyond these examples. They have collaborated with luxury watchmaker Oris , streetwear and fashion brands like KAWS, Supreme, Adidas, and Opening Ceremony , beauty brands like Ciaté London , and fast-food chains like Krystal Burger. Sesame Street characters, while generally kept separate, have also engaged in direct-to-consumer collaborations with brands like KITH, Hedley & Bennett, Staple, Starface, Bombas, and Hanna Andersson in recent years, often focusing on fashion, lifestyle, and children’s products.  

The evolution is clear: Muppet advertising partnerships have moved from basic consumer goods in the early days to encompass high-value items, technology, services, fashion, and luxury goods. This trajectory reflects not only the Muppets’ own journey to becoming enduring cultural icons but also a broadening perception among advertisers of their versatile appeal and ability to connect with diverse audiences across various product categories.  

Muppet Advertising Highlights Through the Decades

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The Muppet Advertising Advantage: Why Brands Keep Calling

Decades after their first chaotic coffee commercials, the Muppets remain surprisingly potent figures in the advertising landscape. Their enduring appeal isn’t accidental; it stems from a unique combination of factors that make them consistently attractive partners for a diverse range of brands.

• Humor and Heart: At their core, the Muppets offer a distinctive blend of comedy – ranging from witty wordplay and character-based humor to outright slapstick – infused with genuine warmth and heart. Jim Henson’s original strategy to “sell with laughter” remains a powerful draw, as humor is consistently shown to be an effective advertising tool that grabs attention and fosters positive associations.
• Nostalgia Power: For generations who grew up with The Muppet Show, Sesame Street, or the numerous Muppet films (Millennials, Gen X, Baby Boomers), the characters evoke powerful feelings of nostalgia and positive childhood memories. Brands strategically leverage this built-in affinity, creating an immediate emotional shortcut to connect with these key demographics.
• Cross-Generational Reach: While nostalgia hooks older viewers, the Muppets’ humor, vibrant characters, and adaptability allow them to connect with younger audiences as well. This rare ability to bridge generational divides makes them valuable for brands seeking broad family appeal or aiming to introduce themselves to new consumer cohorts. Campaigns often explicitly target multiple age groups simultaneously.
• Instant Recognition & Personality: Muppet characters are instantly recognizable global icons with well-defined personalities. Using Kermit or Miss Piggy saves brands the considerable time and expense of creating and establishing new mascots. Their distinct visual style is a potent brand asset in itself.
• Flexibility and Adaptability: The Muppets have proven remarkably adaptable, fitting into diverse scenarios, interacting seamlessly with human celebrities, and conveying a wide range of brand messages. They have consistently evolved, staying relevant across decades by engaging with contemporary culture and media formats.
• Proven Effectiveness: The track record speaks for itself. From Wilkins Coffee’s initial sales surge to Ford’s award-winning Super Bowl ad , Warburtons’ measurable impact on sales and engagement , and Lipton’s unintentional meme phenomenon , Muppet campaigns frequently deliver tangible results. Audience demand data for Muppet properties remains exceptionally high, indicating strong continued engagement and potential ROI for platforms and partners. Their mastery of humor directly correlates with advertising effectiveness metrics. Using the Muppets can also help brands stand out in crowded advertising seasons, as Warburtons demonstrated by cutting through Christmas clutter.
• Brand Safety and Trust: Generally, the Muppets are perceived as wholesome, positive, and trustworthy figures. Associating with them can lend a brand an air of credibility and family-friendly appeal. While acknowledging occasional edgier moments or controversies (like the historical depictions flagged on Disney+ or specific ad concepts that drew criticism ), the overall brand perception remains overwhelmingly positive and safe for advertisers.

However, the Muppets’ effectiveness isn’t automatic. Their success hinges on strategic alignment. The most impactful campaigns occur when the Muppets’ core identity—their specific brand of humor, their established character traits, their inherent warmth—resonates authentically with the product and the campaign’s message. The fun-centric Polaroid ads and the humor-driven Warburtons campaign exemplify strong alignment. Conversely, campaigns where the fit is less natural, like potentially using Kermit to label an SUV as truly “green” , risk feeling inauthentic or failing to fully connect, despite the characters’ charm. Simply deploying the Muppets is not enough; the strategic rationale behind the collaboration is paramount.  

From Slapstick to Screen Time: The Evolving Style of Muppet Ads

The visual style and comedic tone of Muppet commercials have undergone a significant evolution over their nearly 70-year history, mirroring changes in the Muppet brand itself, technological advancements, and broader shifts within the advertising industry.

Early Era (1950s-1960s): The Black and White Slapstick:

• Style: Dominated by the Wilkins Coffee model, these early ads were typically black and white, extremely short (often just 10 seconds), featured minimalist sets, and relied almost entirely on puppet-to-puppet interaction. The puppetry was straightforward, focused on delivering the gag.
• Tone: The humor was often dark, relying on sudden, violent slapstick for impact within the severe time constraints. The pitch was direct and repetitive: accept the product or face the consequences. This style reflected Henson’s early experimental phase and the need for immediate attention-grabbing tactics in nascent television advertising.

Mid-Era (1970s-1980s): Color, Character, and The Muppet Show Influence:

• Style: With the advent of color television becoming standard and the success of The Muppet Show, commercials evolved. Color became the norm , longer formats allowed for slightly more elaborate concepts, and the established stars of The Muppet Show took center stage. Puppets sometimes interacted more directly with live-action environments or people (building on Rowlf’s Jimmy Dean Show appearances ).
• Tone: The overt violence of the Wilkins era largely subsided, replaced by the signature humor of The Muppet Show – still chaotic, witty, and character-driven, but generally more lighthearted and focused on ensemble comedy. Campaigns like Polaroid emphasized warmth and fun, aligning with the Muppets’ mainstream family appeal. The advertising approach began to reflect the established brand identity, rather than defining it.

Later Era (1990s-Present): Cinematic, Nostalgic, and Multi-Platform:

• Style: Modern Muppet commercials boast significantly higher production values, often adopting a cinematic feel. They seamlessly integrate puppetry with advanced techniques like CGI (as seen in the Lipton campaign’s multiplying Animals ) and special effects. Campaigns are frequently tied to major movie releases or timed for maximum impact during large cultural events like the Super Bowl or the Oscars. Crucially, these campaigns are now multi-platform, extending beyond television to digital video, social media, interactive websites, and print.
• Tone: The tone varies considerably depending on the specific campaign and brand partner. Nostalgia is a frequent and powerful element, tapping into audiences’ long history with the characters. Many ads rely on the established dynamics and humor of the core Muppet cast. Celebrity interactions remain common. Modern sensibilities are apparent, with humor generally avoiding the extremes of the earliest ads. Campaigns may also include parodies of popular films or genres or adopt a more straightforwardly heartwarming or aspirational tone, as seen in parts of the Ford and Lipton campaigns.
• Influence of Ownership: Since Disney acquired the Muppets in 2004 , the style and frequency of their commercial appearances are likely influenced by corporate brand strategy. While Disney actively licenses the characters for advertising , the marketing approach often aligns with promoting Disney’s own Muppet films or projects, sometimes featuring extensive and edgy campaigns to broaden appeal.

This evolution reflects not only the Muppets’ journey but also broader trends in advertising: the move from simple product pitches to sophisticated brand storytelling, the increasing importance of production value and multi-channel integration, the rise of nostalgia marketing, and evolving standards around humor and representation.

The Rainbow Connection Between Muppets and Marketing

The journey of the Muppets through the world of advertising is as colorful and captivating as the characters themselves. It began not on a grand stage, but in frantic, ten-second bursts of caffeinated chaos for a local coffee brand. Those early, often shockingly violent, commercials for Wilkins Coffee were more than just a starting point; they were a crucible where Jim Henson honed his unique comedic timing, his innovative approach to puppetry on television, and his astute business sense. Advertising wasn’t merely a way to pay the bills; it was integral to the Muppets’ development, serving as an R&D lab that birthed characters like Rowlf the Dog and the precursor to Cookie Monster.  

As the Muppets transitioned from quirky commercial creations to beloved stars of Sesame Street and The Muppet Show, their role in advertising shifted. Henson carefully guarded his educational characters from commercial exploitation , while allowing the internationally famous Muppet Show cast to become versatile brand ambassadors for products ranging from instant cameras and hybrid SUVs to pizza and tea.  

The enduring success of Muppets in marketing stems from their unique alchemy: a blend of sophisticated humor and genuine heart that appeals across generations. They offer brands instant recognition, a powerful dose of nostalgia, and a generally trusted, family-friendly image. Case studies consistently demonstrate their effectiveness, translating into award-winning campaigns, measurable sales lifts, and unforgettable cultural moments like the “Kermit sipping tea” meme.  

Their advertising style has evolved alongside the characters and the industry, moving from minimalist slapstick to high-production, multi-platform campaigns that leverage their rich history and iconic status. Yet, the core appeal remains rooted in Henson’s original vision: connecting with audiences through laughter and imagination.  

The Muppets’ significant, decades-long history in advertising is a testament to their timeless charm and adaptability. They prove that characters built with felt, foam, and a spark of genius can become powerful and profitable marketing partners. In the often-cynical world of advertising, the Muppets offer a rainbow connection to something genuinely joyful, proving that sometimes, it truly is advantageous being green – or furry, or feathered, or whatever Gonzo